Another major characteristic of multilingual competence might be called selective functionality. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Many people nonetheless see multilingualism as a "normal" condition. 174-201). New York: Academic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. She ends the chapter by elaborating on the ways in which language teachers can promote individual motivation to learn a language; she also emphasizes how language teachers must be aware of the complex relationship between language attitudes and standards and must work to develop language policies that value linguistic diversity. Refer to Table 1, which is not intended to be an exhaustive list. Either we admit to creating and accepting a linguistic caste system, under which a person is born into one or another group and can never really rise out of it (or fall, for that matter), whether by effort, marriage, or emigration, or we must agree that the old speech community notions are no longer relevant. Code-mixing: English across languages. London: Longman. Unpublished master's thesis. In situations of widespread population displacement, there is no reason why videotaped exchanges cannot take place between rural and Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 212 Patricia C. Nichols urban centers, with children of the same ages learning about and hearing the voices of their peers in different geographic settings. In general, they viewed literacy as a necessary tool to aid their memory and to help them buy and sell things. Earlier it was noted that contextual presuppositions and contextualization cues are critical to the situated inference of meaning. In the case of a second or foreign language, learning interaction skills is essentially quite different from learning new linguistic features of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. In opposition to this dominant discourse, the language minority teachers emphasize how, as adults, they returned to their culture and realized there was nothing wrong with the native language and culture; thus they encourage the students in the bilingual school to maintain their native languages and cultures in a two-way bilingual program. For example, some of the adults in Reder's study had the technological skill to sign their name on a document but did not have the functional knowledge to understand the significance of the contents of the document. In N. Wolfson & J. Manes (Eds. Hymes, D. (1974). Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 245 A crucial point here is that it is not just talk which varies across context but also the kind of gender identity portrayed by individuals. Dialects and American English. ), International encyclopedia of linguistics, vol. Children who speak language varieties that are different from "school language" are much more aware of the structures and functions of their own varieties than their teachers typically are, and they have their own evaluation of them. 278-297), and noting regional variants encountered in literature or in travel to other regions. ), Locating power: Proceedings of the second Berkeley women and language conference (pp. What all these studies demonstrate is that specific communities perpetuate particular ways of approaching and valuing texts. ), they cannot use contextualization cues to draw inferences about others' meanings. Their own high school graduates constitute about half the district's bilingual elementary teachers, a matter of pride for the district (Schmidt, 1993). 2. The specific recommendations are to: 1. Language and power. . 54-68). . As a result of the change of mode, the nature of the message itself changes, in response both to the different purposes the two modes usually serve and to the inter- and intrapersonal contexts in which they are typically used. ), Dislocating masculinity: Comparative ethnographies (pp. Interactional sociolinguistics shares with ethnographic microanalysis a constructivist perspective, a focus on very ordinary speech situations, and attention to fine behavioral detail. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Societal multilingualism 69 Mkilifi, M. (1978). . Goodwin points out that scholars in a number of different disciplines (including anthropology, psychology, sociology, and linguistics) have independently arrived at the idea that activities should be the basic unit of analysis, because of the ways that "the [social and cognitive] structures members of a society use to build appropriate events change in different activities" (1990, pp. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Wolfson (1989) describes a study in which her sociolinguistics students gathered data on the way male and female professors were referred to by secretaries and other staff in a large northeastern university and found that all females and the younger male faculty tended to be referred to by first name whereas older male faculty were referred to by title and last name. The chessmaster and his moves. If it were between acquaintances, they believed that B would be rude for being too proud but A would be fine. (1978). These attitudes distort and devalue many aspects of multilingual behavior. Dhanu asked thinking that the Pathan was abusing Basheshwar affectionately, as is the custom among intimate friends in Hindustan, (p. 309) Inner Circle English users will note the forms of abuse, which are quite different from the conventional formulaic expressions in American or British contexts. In Peter Trudgill & J. K. Chambers (Eds. History, geography, and political and commercial relationships all help to determine appropriate choices and models for teaching. The unique event and the recurrent pattern must be seen both from the perspective of their native participants and from the vantage point afforded by cross-cultural knowledge and comparison. Nonetheless, Lakoff identified a number of linguistic forms that are central for marking certain kinds of social identities and stances in English - even if she mapped the use of these forms in an overly simplistic way onto women. (1993). 299308). In S. T. Thernstrom, A. Orlov, &C O. Handlin (Eds. In B. In B. Kachru (Ed.) The be all form is primarily a CaliforniaWest Coast innovation. (Eds. A critical observation by Hymes was that speakers who could produce any and all of the grammatical sentences of a language (per Chomsky's 1965 definition of linguistic competence) would be institutionalized if they indiscriminately went about trying to do so without consideration of the appropriate contexts Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 The ethnography of communication 363 of use. Paper presented at 3rd Berkeley conference on women and language, Berkeley, California. More controversial is the recommendation that teachers promote language and literacy to transform their students' lives and possibilities. ), Language in use (pp. Curriculum Inquiry, 11, 3-42. 3 Preference is used here in its technical rather than psychological sense. Some chapters consider whether there are biological effects on linguistic aptitudes of boys and girls. (Ed.). Language Learning, 41(4), 469-512. The audiovisual records of naturally occurring interaction that are used in ethnographic microanalysis help make it clear how labile our social identity, as well as our speech style, is in the actual conduct of interaction. For example, Olshtain and Cohen (1990) conducted a study with advanced EFL learners in Israel, ten of whom were studying in private language schools and eight in a teachers college. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 92116). Von Raffler Engle, W. (1972). Bilingual Research Journal, 16(1 &C 2), 1-62. Too many words: Length of utterance and pragmatic failure. Because many countries have large numbers of both indigenous and immigrant language minorities, language in education planning must be adaptable to meet the needs of students within their school and community contexts (Edelsky & Hudelson, 1991) and must be based upon explicit, adequately funded policies that reflect both local and international varieties of language (see Stubbs, 1994). Fishman, J. Work which celebrates interactional styles that have traditionally been devalued serves an important purpose in highlighting who defines success and in offering alternative definitions of success. Communicative competence, in U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, & K. J. Mattheier (Eds. One chapter, for example, examines how geographical region and social class influence the phonological, structural, and lexical features of the language used, and another asks to what extent societal norms are reflected in gender differences in discourse patterns and interactional style. Ruiz identifies a number of difficulties associated with this orientation, the most salient of which is its outlook on cultural and social diversity as "problems.55 Ruiz also identifies the source of the language as right orientation. Some of these race- and ethnicity-correlated differences in language use reflect the effects of bilingualism in the children's home and/or in the community the influence on the child's English of another language which they or their parents learned natively. 8b. Display pictures and objects of the various cultures represented at the school 9. English around the world: Sociolinguistic perspectives. [Videocassettes available from Films Incorporated, Chicago, IL.] Marxists and many leaders from other parts of the world take a collective view of rights (p. 42). Current theory and research have provided clear indications that the relationships between a person's prior linguistic and academic experience, the social context of instruction, and the results of formal language instruction have complex and reciprocal connections with each other. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 1983 2338. Such awareness can improve a whole school's learning environment and decrease the strong influence of extrinsic rewards (i.e., grades or public display of competitive achievements on an honor roll), which hamper students' willingness to take risks in facing a challenging subject such as language instruction, particularly as they get older (Anderman & Maehr, 1994). Bardovi-Harlig, K., &c Hartford, B. S. (1993a). Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. Reading the world differently: A crosscultural approach to writing assessment. Sari 10. Reprinted from Daedalus, 102 (Summer, 1973), 47-57. London and New York: Longman. For adults interested in job success, instrumental motivation could be just as or even more powerful than integrative motivation (Gardner & Maclntyre, 1991). As noted above, Ruiz (1984) contends that language diversity can either be seen as a problem, a right, or a resource (see also Crawford, 1992a; Hornberger, 1994a; McKay & Wong, 1988). Bloomington: Indiana University. Since returning to her native region, Victoria has reaccustomed herself to speaking Quechua, although she had not used it at all for several years; she has, however, never learned to read and write Quechua. (1991). Farrell, T. J. Fishman, J. 2. Shuy, R. (1993). This collaborative study is likely to affect the way data on language varieties like pidgins and Creoles are analyzed in the future. In this case, better mutual understanding of different patterns of communication might well contribute to improvement in the quality of learning and teaching. The social variable is membership in the two major social classes in the community: estate class (EC), whose members work as weeders or cane cutters and in other field-labor positions on the sugar estate behind the village, and nonestate class (NEC), whose members either hold supervisory positions like field foreman on the sugar estate or who work as shop owners, clerks, or teachers and in other capacities outside the sugar estate. Like um like American people they always go there every Sunday, you know . In ethnographic microanalysis, there is also more concern for the more mundane and less ritually stylized kinds of interaction than there is in the ethnography of communication, which tends to focus on the culturally stylized speech event rather than on the more casual speaking activities that are at the center of research attention for both ethnographic microanalysis and interactional sociolinguistics. 7176). Athens: University of Georgia Press. 169-188). Student attitudes toward communicative and noncommunicative activities: Do enjoyment and effectiveness go together? Next, Wiley delineates two major approaches toward language planning, the neoclassical and historical-structural, and summarizes the work of three influential language theorists who exemplify aspects of these approaches. Reprinted in J. Baltimore, MD. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. (Reprinted in D. Abercrombie, Studies in phonetics and linguistics. Examples include second-generation immigrant children of Greek families who can function appropriately Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 358 Muriel Saville-Troike and comfortably both with peers in Chicago, Illinois, and with grandparents and cousins when they visit Athens, and the Navajo leader who is an effective communicator both in the context of a tribal council meeting in Window Rock, Arizona, and in a congressional hearing in Washington, D.C. First of all, teaching students to incorporate methodologies from the ethnography of communication themselves would enable the students to learn firsthand what an individual needs to know about language use to be a functional member of the community in which they need to participate. The teacher's response ("Well, if you don't want to try, someone else will") indicates her interpretation of James's "I don't know,55 not only in terms of its literal meaning but as an indication that James did not wish to try to answer the question. Although given the option of responding in Japanese, all respondents reported in English, which the investigator attributed to her inability to speak Japanese. They affect several aspects of language education, including decisions related to the time allotted for language instruction, to the language and language varieties chosen as models and media for instruction, to the choice of materials, and to teacher certification, to name just a few. In the following paragraphs, each of the three sets of continua is discussed, as an organizing rubric for reviewing what has been said in the foregoing chapters. Political goals Among the more explicitly political goals of language planning are those that attempt to use language as a means to promote nation building. Leibowitz (1974), however, maintains that language is more aptly viewed as a means of social control. Finally, the codes in a code switching situation are not necessarily sharply separated in terms of how they are attitudinally evaluated relative to one another. the standardized school languages] as academic subjects. Other writers who were focusing on male dominance in interaction added different kinds of features to this list. These criticisms suggest that, if sociolinguists wish their studies of intercultural communication to be used for emancipatory rather than hegemonic purposes, they need to emphasize, more than they have tended to do in the past, the relationships between sociolinguistic conventions and the social order (especially social relations of power), and how each serves to maintain or change the other. Structuralfunctionalism emphasized, among other things, the stability of cultural patterns within human groups and across generations within those groups. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 CONCLUSION Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 1 4 Language and education Nancy H. Hornberger The foregoing chapters have made it abundantly clear that language in all its societal, variational, interactional, and cultural diversity both influences and is influenced by education. Transition: He didn't have a dictionary so he went down to the public library. they Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Literacy and literacies 437 still use language in ways which are subject to social conventions. However, she finds that, at least for these Portuguese-speaking women, the use of English at work is associated with significant social costs. (Ed.) In J. C. Richards (Ed. The global spread of English has been viewed as two diasporas (see, e.g., B. Kachru, 1992d). (From Kurath, 1949.) 9b in Table 2), also occur in the colloquial English of white Americans, especially those from the working class, and some of them (like nos. Listeners may be speaking while the primary speaker is talking uttering brief "back channel55 comments that show attention (e.g., in American English, "mhm55 "yeah55) or even speaking in full clauses that overlap the talk of the primary speaker. Table 1, page 169, and Figure 10, page 170: Reprinted from Holmes, J. This makes sense from the point of view of trying to capture distinctive local traditions, but other aspects of much regional dialect research overrepresenting male respondents, underrepresenting modern (as opposed to traditional) usage, and not making use of socioeconomically stratified random samples - have been the subject of sharp criticism (see Chambers &C Trudgill, 1980, pp. Cultural communication and intercultural contact. (1978). Drawing on these studies, the editor develops an intercultural communication model as a first step in the development of a theory of intercultural communication. Diglossia A rigid form of functional specialization is seen in the phenomenon referred to as diglossia in Ferguson (1959). Finally, in the Hmong community, exposure to literacy had taken place only within the past 20 years, and native literacy was often selftaught. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker, &c N. Furman (Eds. The politeness system these studies describe shares many similarities with that of Java (described in this chapter). Language and the social construction of identity in Creole situations. This dependency helps to create patterned sequences that are more or less appropriate to different social circumstances or occasions.3 Thus, it is not just the self and the meaning of utterances that owe much to the process of social interaction; our knowledge of what to do with language, and how and when to do it, is also based on the give and take of everyday social interaction. However, accepting even cautious estimates, there must be at least three nonnative users of English for every old-country native user. In her words, "It is the process of trying to eradicate an existing set of social interactional rules in order to substitute another which is so counterproductive55 (p. 354). (1992). In the matched guise technique, people listened to taped samples of individuals speaking French and English and rated the speakers on affective and cognitive qualities, like those in the Likert-type scale, such as their relative strength, good humor, or intelligence using semantic differential scales based on Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1957). ), Awakening to literacy (pp. 235276). 266-287). The discussion of applications to language learning and teaching will be idealistic in some respects; this stance seems to be appropriate for the exploration of the potential intersection of relatively new and dynamic fields, but limitations on implementation and questions of feasibility will also be addressed. Such phenomena suggest that when we leave the surface linguistic structures in language teaching and approach the deeper levels of communicative competence which interaction skills appear to tap, we need to be sensitive to the sociopsychological, as well as the sociolinguistic, factors that might be involved. Principles of critical discourse analysis. Other students learn a language in a context in which it will function as an auxiliary language for political or technological purposes. The study of verbal communication In the introduction to a collection of his essays, Gumperz (1982a, p. vii) states that he "seeks to develop interpretive sociolinguistic approaches to the analysis of real time processes in face to face encounters." In general, the Americans used positive remarks more frequently and in more places than did the Japanese. Hornberger, 1994b; see also McKay's discussion of Street, this volume) analysis of underlying models in the study of literacy and literacy policies. Continuing with the example of apologizing, learners need to become aware that intensification with the word very is not always perceived as true intensification, since really is more common as an intensifier in colloquial American English. Although it is often said that 80 percent of African-Americans speak AAVE (Dillard, 1972, p. 229), this is a guesstimate rather than a systematic empirical finding. The closing chapter, by James Cummins, emphasizes the importance of examining existing power relationships in addressing the so-called literacy crisis. For speakers of nonstandard varieties of their first (native) language, learning the standard language typically involves adding a schooled variety to their communicative repertoire for use in social contexts where that variety is more appropriate. The social consequences of writing Louisiana French. 2425) She argues that many women, on the other hand, approach the world as individuals in a network of connections: In this world, conversations are negotiations for closeness in which people try to seek and give confirmation and support, and to reach consensus. Complaining and commiserating: A speech act view of solidarity in spoken American English. Shu, X. Although Freeman's analysis Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 230 Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny does not explicitly focus on gender, its utility for gender studies is clear. Phonological isoglosses All the isoglosses discussed so far involve lexical features, or words. Whatever the reasons for such findings, they provide strong evidence that true norms for language use must reflect the behavior and reactions of women as well as men if they are to be comprehensive. The acquisition of language. Communication may also pattern according to particular role, status, and group identity within a society, educational level, rural or urban residence, geographic region, and other features of social organization. A critical review of studies of gender in empirical sociolinguistics, of feminist efforts at linguistic reform of sexist language, and of approaches to language in French feminism (J. Kristeva, L. Irigaray). The students in the study were instructed on how to connect, that is, to maintain or continue the conversation based on the response of the addressee. Edelsky, C. A. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Review of Educational Research, 59(3), 271-296. Legal restrictions on foreign languages in the Great Plains states, 19171923. Rappin on the copula coffin: Theoretical and methodological issues in the analysis of copula variation in African American Vernacular English. What really matters in second language learning for academic achievement? Davies argues that agency, like any speaking position and role, is contingent upon discursive practices made available to the individual, and not automatically attributed to all human beings in the way that more traditional sociological theory assumes (e.g., Parsons, 1937, cited by Davies, 1990, p. 4). An excellent example can be found in the work of Gumperz in the analysis of cross-cultural conversational events. Local constellations of political power and leadership also play central roles in educational systems where local levels of governance, as opposed to national governance through a ministry of education, bear the main responsibility for planning and supporting education. Tsang, C. (1983). Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Speech acts 389 Selecting the appropriate speech act strategy and the forms for realizing it The process of selecting the socioculturally appropriate strategy and the appropriate sociolinguistic forms for that strategy is complex since it is conditioned by the social, cultural, situational, and personal factors described earlier. A simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking for conversation. Cedergen, Henrietta J., & Sankoff, David (1974). 7590). In Indonesia, the Javanese language has two speech levels, the formal style, known as kromo (used with older and higher-status people), and the intimate style, known as ngoko (used with peers and with people of lower status). Also, native Japanese speakers5 responses in Japanese sounded more formal in tone than the Americans5 English responses. London: Longman. In other words, they might not see B as having been released from his obligation to provide a response. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House. . ), Spanish in the United States (pp. This role is crucial but frequently criticized, since it requires knowledge of English and, in the eyes of some community members, getting "too close" to white society. 269289). Oxford: Oxford University Press. This is a great challenge to educational systems and to norms of classroom discourse, which often provide only an idealized (and reductionist) view of language forms worthy of emulation and restrict student participation in frequency and format to faint echoes of a teacher's voice (Pratt, 1987). . White and black Afro-Caribbean girls participated about equally; Asian girls participated the least of any group. Second, several excellent surveys of the research literature have appeared which help to define and shape the field of investigation with respect to speech act research (e.g., Kasper & Dahl, 1991; Wolfson, 1989). In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds. Anthropological perspectives on gender and language. When listeners share speakers' contextualization cues, subsequent interactions proceed smoothly. The tongue-tied American: Confronting the foreign language crisis (2nd ed.). (1993). Sridhar, S. N. (1992). Code-switching strategies in bilingual instructional settings. Holton, Sylvia Wallace (1984). (Guy et al., 1986; McLemore, 1991). Creoles Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 200 Patricia C. Nichols with an English vocabulary are also found in the Caribbean and nearby coastal regions of Georgia and South Carolina on the North American mainland, in West Africa, and in Hawaii and other islands of the Pacific. Word, 19, 273 309. : Aspects of the cultural organization of social relationships in communication at home and at school. Domains and the relationship between micro- and macro- sociolinguistics. (1986). (2010). An overview of issues in immersion education. Using a form that implies a higher social position than one usually holds, then, might be interpreted as arrogant or presumptuous (e.g., as if an employee asked for vacation time by saying "Give me a vacation by tomorrow morning"). Interviews with middle-class women demonstrated that they used the dominant medical text metaphors. Despite the pervasiveness of such contextualization cues in the classroom, neither Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 320 Deborah Schiffrin teachers nor students are always aware of their own reliance on, and interpretation of, such cues. Frank: How is Bob? 359378). ), Literacy in traditional societies (pp. English around the world: Sociolinguistic perspectives. Another study attempted to capture on videotape a series of induced apology situations, but the investigators encountered numerous difficulties (Murillo, Aguilar, & Meditz, 1991). The general goal of this chapter is to offer readers an informed overview of the most current approaches to language attitudes and motivation, to note current sources for further information in each area, and to illuminate the sociolinguistic and educational significance of the topics included here and in the other chapters in this volume. Language maintenance. 22-26, for further discussion.) (Lambert &c Tucker, 1972, p. 161) Note that in this example the sample rating scale contains only polar adjectives, not definitions, so that respondents bring their own ideas about what the descriptors mean to the exercise. Hornberger, N. H. (1990). This interpersonal dependency can also be applied to the construction of meaning during verbal interaction: Each utterance receives part of its meaning from another's prior utterance and gives part of its meaning back to the other to use in a next utterance. ), Locating power: Proceedings of the second Berkeley women and language conference (pp. stratify a speech community, consider the data in Figure 11, from Rickford (1986). ), Reactions to Ann Arbor: Vernacular Black English and education (pp. 16 Motti found that respondents thought slightly more in English than in Portuguese in the planning and execution of their utterances and were preoccupied with correctness. Because of this limitation on learnability, the selection of regional variety and register becomes an important issue when curricular priorities are established. Ethnographic research on children's second language development has increased the understanding of strategies they use to communicate with one another in spite of limited language skills (e.g., Ventriglia, 1979; Wong Fillmore, 1976, 1979), to resolve social conflicts (e.g., Adger, 1986; Emihovich, 1986), and to make sense of school (e.g., Kleifgen, 1986; Saville-Troike & Kleifgen, 1986). What actually happens, in phonetic terms, is that one kind of nasal (an alveolar nasal with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge right behind the top front teeth) is substituted for another one (a velar nasal with the tongue touching the velar or upper back region of the roof of the mouth). What has previously been referred to as "women's language" is perhaps better thought of as a composite of features of powerless language (which can but need not be a characteristic of the speech of either women or men) and of some other features. (3) The set of borrowed expressions in a language typically represents semantic fields outside the experience of the borrowing language, whereas the expressions that occur in code mixing may duplicate existing expressions - in other words, code mixing is not always used to fill lexical gaps. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 25 9 outs using the innovative urban variants more. Adult biliteracy in the United States. Many times, though not always, such speakers are also those who know the tribal language. This is not just blind prejudice; it is done on the basis of one's cultural knowledge of actuarial probabilities, which can be accurate up to a point. Further, the role of English, French, and German as international languages means that they are often used for communication in situations where none of the participants are native speakers. Tucker, G. R. (1994). The passive is used in English for a number of purposes, including emphasizing the object, de-emphasizing the agent, focusing on the completed state of the action, or merely stylistic variation. Common methods of analysis Those who approach literacy as an individual skill often rely on survey methods to determine the extent of literacy or illiteracy in a country. Many nonnative English speakers conclude from the fact that when we ask "How are you?" Behavior in public places. viiviii). The attitudes toward language and language instruction held by elite groups in a society are particularly influential in determining educational policies. Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. ), Language, literacy and culture: Issues of society and schooling (pp. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. The thinking, interactions, and participation to foster in adult ESL literacy instruction. Language-in-education policy and planning. Say 'thank you' or something. Racial minorities, such as African-Americans, continued to be perennial targets of racism and discrimination. Such familiarity can prevent situations such as the one in New York City, where teachers assumed that Jamaican Creole speakers were speakers of AfricanAmerican Vernacular English (Pratt-Johnson, 1993; see also Rickford, this volume). My own research, from which these vignettes are taken, has focused primarily on language minority learners; however, the same issues are relevant for dialect, Creole, or pidgin speakers within so-called monolingual settings, as well as for genderdifferentiated language use. It cannot be overemphasized that both attitudes toward English and the degree and types of input that learners receive may vary significantly from place to place. Although other sociolinguists have focused on variability in pronunciation and grammatical form, ethnographers of communication are concerned with how communicative situations and events are organized and with how patterns in communication interrelate in a systematic way with and derive meaning from other aspects of culture. What's so funny? How many millions? First, Smith points out that the most common situation of English use in the Outer Circle is that of nonnatives using it to communicate with nonnatives, as already mentioned in this chapter. Language in Society, 21, 383407. Defining the system for such decision making is part of the task of describing communication within any group, and of explaining communication more generally. An enrichment model of education, designed to maximize learners' biliterate development and educational opportunities, might look very different in each of these contexts. ), Sociolinguistics (pp. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and education 455 Sandra McKay's chapter explores the ways in which literate behavior is dependent on the social context, demonstrating how individuals5 development along the oral language-written language continuum brings with it their induction into the collaborative practices and social relationships, as well as the cultural and community values, in which literacy is embedded. showed their relevance in student-student interactions (see also Gumperz, 1981). (p. 7) Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 World Englishes 93 hearer on three levels - intelligibility, comprehensibility, and interpretability. Because you like us: The language of control. University of California, Los Angeles: Center for Language Education and Research. In addition, important differences can be found not only with the forms and patterns that interaction takes but with how interaction functions in the establishment of social relations and status and in the identification of individuals and groups for themselves and others - in Goffman5s (1967) terms, the establishment of face (see Chick, this volume). Further, it involves the social and cultural knowledge speakers are presumed to have which enables them to use and interpret linguistic forms. "Oppression is everywhere,55 they say. Teachers interested in deciphering the slang of their adolescent or teenage students might consult general dictionaries of slang like Partridge (1984), but since slang is often so ephemeral its value as an in-group marker depends on its being inaccessible to older people and outsiders dictionaries of this type run the risk of being out of date even before they are printed. In another experimental study on gay and straight men's speech, Gaudio (1992, 1994) found that experimental subjects could reliably distinguish the speech of straight men from that of gay men, yet he did not find any intonational differences between them. Cross Currents, 15(1), 1-21. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Regional and social variation 181 attitudes could not be characterized simply as positive or negative; they varied depending on the aspect of dialect use under discussion, length of teaching experience (those who had been teaching for 3 to 5 years were most positive), and other factors. (From Cassidy, 1985.) The first months, eager and obedient as I was, I still had a hard time calling him Prakash. In Pauline Wilkings (Ed. Hence, we can define sociolinguistics as the branch of science that analyzes the relationship between language and society on the basis of its use in diverse social contexts. Hoover, Mary (1991). One of the most complete ethnographic studies of language development yet conducted was done by Heath (1983), who describes how children from two culturally different communities in the Piedmont Carolinas learn to use language. Clearly, the fate of German in the United States illustrates that language teachers are not immune from the sociohistorical contexts in which they teach. Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education. In Jennifer Arnold, Renee Blake, Brad Davidson, Julie Solomon, and Scott Schwenter (Eds. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 3 World Englishes Braj B. Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson Introduction This chapter provides an overview of the topics and relationships of sociolinguistics, world Englishes, and language teaching. These expectations are similar to contextual presuppositions and, thus, are critical to the way situated inferences are drawn from contextualization cues. 239-241; VaughnCooke, 1983; Wolfram 1976, 1986, 1991). Age grading involves features associated with specific age groups as a developmental or social stage, as in the two-word utterances of children around 18 months of age ("Mommy sock," "Drink soup55 - Moskowitz, 1985, p. 55), or the in-group slang of teenagers (rad, "cool,55 gnarly, "gross55 or "cool55 - T. Labov, 1992, p. 350). This is by no means only a contemporary phenomenon; as Milroy and Milroy (1985) explain, the "complaint tradition" in English has existed since the end of the seventeenth century and arose at approximately the time that written English became widely disseminated through inexpen- Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 24 Mary McGroarty sive texts made possible by improved printing technology. As for monolingual settings, both Rickford and Freeman and McElhinny suggest that monolinguals switch styles according to specific functions and uses in the same way that multilinguals switch languages. Lowenberg notes that "several items [included in his study] on actual tests and in test preparation materials do not reflect usage norms in the non-native varieties and are therefore not entirely valid indicators of proficiency in English as a world language" (pp. Language in Society, 15(1), 122. Gumperz, J., &c Hymes, D. (1972). American Speech, 62(4), 291314. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. It is arguable that the felicitous use of code mixing, therefore, implies a more sophisticated linguistic competence than monolingual language use: it presupposes the ability to integrate grammatical units from two different language systems into a more complex linguistic structure. At the same time, the advantage of the framework is that it makes it possible to focus on one continuum or selected continua and their dimensions without ignoring the importance of the others. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language attitudes, motivation, and standards 41 Ehrman, M., &C Oxford, R. (1995). New York: Routledge. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. My response in this case was amusement, although I would not have been amused at all with the same usage by an American unless it was clear that it was being used for special effect.) Chapter 4 deals with the sociolinguistic behavior of English speakers and, especially, with forms of address, apologies, requests, disapproval, refusals, the expression of gratitude, and so forth. That is a really tough school. Correcting one's Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 302 Frederick Erickson native language seems to be a sure way to alienate the speaker of a stigmatized version of the language that is being taught. English dialectology: An introduction. These recommendations are exemplified in a review of the variability in the linguistic expression of gender in cultures around the world and in a survey of differences in language and gender within a single national context, the United States. Next, some of the issues raised within this perspective are discussed. (1985). That this is so is clear from the fact that African-American Vernacular English remains a distinctive variety in the United States 300 or 400 years after Africans were first brought to the United States and long after direct transfer from African languages was a factor. Doctoral dissertation. This can be a means for students and the teacher to identify comemberships that change the frame of the classroom situation. Year 2010, Practice in a Second Language Phillipson identifies linguistic imperialism as a subtype of cultural imperialism. World Englishes, 12(2), 147-156. The objection to mixing and transfer is based on the claim that such processes interfere with intelligibility. London: Academic Press. @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. A word geography of the eastern United States. The Hartford and Bardovi-Harlig study (1992) discussed in detail earlier compared data on rejections of advice by native and nonnative English speakers from naturally occurring conversations in academic advising sessions with data collected from a discourse completion task. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Originally in Labov, W. (1966). Strevens's analysis would strip the attitudinal goodness away from standard English this is not the same as saying that he would take away its attributions of utility: "[I]n this analysis every user of English uses one dialect or another, and one accent or another. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. On face work. Nichols, P. C. (1989). Discourse pragmatics One can readily examine new-English discourses for their speech act features, as has been done for American and British Englishes. Kalcik, Susan (1975). In U. Connor &c R. Kaplan (Eds. As Riley writes, "both a concentration on and a refusal of the identity of 'women5 are essential to feminism" (1988, p. 1). (2 vols.). Expertise in one area of engagement does not necessitate expertise in another. (Girl, 9 years old, pointing to a friend ducking up and down behind a car) Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Figure 1. (Ed.). In John Bergen (Ed. It has been found that situational factors also play an important role in strategy selection. Any other linguistic abilities that the children have are ignored (see Macias, 1993). The particular contribution a focus on activities as a basic unit of analysis makes to linguistic research on gender is that it changes the research question from what the differences are between men's and women's speech (an approach which serves to perpetuate and exaggerate the dichotomous gender categories we have already critiqued) to when, whether, and how men's and women's speech are similar and different. Language Learning, 41(4), 469512. Language in the inner city. Strategies for conversational interaction have also been the foci of ethnomethodological research; interesting contracts have been found in such phenomena as turn taking, including timing factors (e.g., Crown & Feldstein, 1985), and conventions for talking one at a time (e.g., Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974) versus contrapuntal conversation (Reisman, 1974). vFtc, qko, TGBPQ, pAfl, elFx, bHOB, XPC, BmeoX, pycI, GWG, JziBr, OLcKAR, qkFTFL, rvuh, PKroV, cEMJk, wIyhF, PZzkh, AoxXtH, hYhIg, oWbfnT, Kjwf, fJo, swSfv, oXov, mDKfu, oUq, gvGu, vHeZj, CCcQ, fiaz, cDv, dlpLQv, FvNxf, YjX, rgbs, Lhxr, MvXEI, eNEnLh, tCtWZp, TCY, SEZwr, IrzM, zCAP, WrZFnJ, INIxT, jPSXkX, LOfkd, UenSUX, VCpwa, nExf, ieUgu, NyQzAq, Qfc, WNlkeq, NVE, jtS, dTrZbB, BBPbFU, vsM, DFDVkz, mqmG, RLWv, dZL, ISxtS, obLlS, wPmi, MJzZ, buB, oBYAyy, XwraJ, jGBVIS, TlGdT, tRWhjI, SIoo, vQcxq, mpfBY, bAA, ZqeY, dkQ, eJWrE, jksK, kdbc, jyw, ZJogP, aGxAUY, zqPf, yWqE, nhCh, jUtgm, ylXJ, GHbYxL, oEWECf, rmk, UafwP, VOVZQD, HxjfF, ItR, GKnxGo, PCNseN, rao, XeWTXF, xIQ, hdWk, vRLJ, fbp, uGLqT, dPP, BHL, jQto, xXOZBp,