The Gemini computer and the Moon landings. But aerospace needs provided the context for the chips invention. Visit our corporate site (opens in new tab). The decade of the 1950s saw a steady increase in the power and memory capacity of mainframe computers, coupled with a development of general purpose software such as the programming language FORTRAN, and special-purpose software that was used for computer-aided design/computer-assisted manufacturing (CAD/CAM), stress analysis, or fluid dynamics. NASA knew that the Apollo missions would require onboard systems capable of handling every aspect of the mission and that meant a guidance system of unprecedented ingenuity. The arrival of the first man on the moon on July 20, 1969 ended the space race, shifting the final balance in favor of the United States.But the truth is that most of the previous landmarks had first been reached by the Soviet Union, which led the way until the final triumph of its rival.We review here the main achievements of the Soviet space program before the historic Apollo 11 mission. China's coup is no different'. It chose MIT to design the system. Ceruzzi, Paul. The computer mouse dates back to the 1960s. Engelbart is best known for his invention of the mouse as a computer pointing device, but he is also known as one of the first to recognize this place for computers among us. The Wright brothers aircraft was unstable by design and required constant attention from its pilot. The first digital camera may have been built in 1975 by Eastman Kodak - the . NASA demanded an accuracy of one error in 1,000,000,000. It would be the Soviets, however, who would win the race to put a man in space. Much of this activity took place in what was once an agricultural valley south of San Francisco, soon dubbed Silicon Valley by a local journalist. For gamers, perhaps no other outcome of the Space Race is as important as the joystick. But it is not that simple. In the late 1960s, many influential computer scientists predicted that computers would attain Artificial Intelligence (AI), and become our personal servants, perhaps even companions (McCorduck 1979). In a letter afterwards Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming said If the computer hadnt recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was. America had new heroes, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins, flight director Gene Kranz and his crew as well. This concept propelled years of research at NASA, and in the 1990s, a group of researchers developed the very image sensors used in one of every three cellphones used across the world. While the age of computers at the NACA may have averaged near 21, Cramer noted there were a surprising number of computers nearer . Docking with another craft was the first challenge to be tackled. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Electronic systems became practical with the advent of solid-state devices, beginning with the invention of the transistor and then the Integrated Circuit, as described above. Interestingly, when writing the onboard software, IBM engineers pioneered the first use of the software engineering techniques that all avionics developers use today. The job title described someone who performed mathematical. Although the US intelligence community was not surprised, ordinary Americans were, and the two launches demonstrated without any doubt that the Soviet Union had a lead over the US not only in satellites, but in booster rockets, which could deliver weapons as well. Spacecraft face a different environment, and their control needs are different. And once a spacecraft enters space, there is little or no atmospheric drag. The launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik on Oct. 4, 1957, would place pressure on the U.S. to design technologies crafted for space exploration. Apollo 10 followed in May paving the way a few months later on July 21, 1969 for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the lunar surface with Apollo 11. During the first moon landingApollo 11 in 1969the crew encountered a software error as they descended to the surface; this was resolved by ground controllers, who advised the crew to go ahead with a landing. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Personal electronics Laptop computers were first used on space shuttle missions in the 1980s NASA created computer mice in the 1960s to make computers more interactive Communication technologies The system had to be programmed to account for the orbit of the Moon, landing and leaving the Moon to complete its calculations. *Your comment will be reviewed before being published, The Future does not Arrive Suddenly: Why we Need Visioners, Aspirin: 120 Years of the First 'Miracle' Drug, Thomas Midgley, The Most Harmful Inventor in History, Sustainability Notes n2: Natural and Technological Solutions to Stop Climate Change, The world after the Revolution: Physics in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century. Receive the OpenMind newsletter with all the latest contents published on our website, l'Universit Paris Diderot, Paris, France, Smithsonians National Air and Space Museum (NASM), Washington, USA. They could not have gotten there without a computer. And was the network developed by NASAs companion agency, ARPA, the true defining technology of the modern age? By the 1960s, space operations were tightly bound to the ground. Invention of microchips and their use in the Apollo space program. But controlled aeronautical flight was still difficult. Perhaps the most famous instance of this was during Apollo 11s descent when their radar overloaded the system that monitored it setting off the now-famous 1202 alarm at 6,000 feet above the lunar surface. Computers at the time were nothing more than giant calculators and were incredibly expensive to build, operate and to maintain. The Real-Time Computer Complex (RTCC) in Houston, Texas, was an IBM computing and data processing system at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Centernow called the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Centerthat collected, processed and sent to Mission Control information to direct every phase of an Apollo mission. In the Apollo computer 5,600 integrated circuits formed the CPU. While all these creations help sustain essential aspects of modern life, we carry one of the largest technological advancements from the space race in our pockets today. Now they are used in building everywhere to protect us in our homes and offices. One of ARPAs research areas was in missiles and space exploration; by the end of 1958 most of that work was transferred to another agency, under civilian control: the National Air and Space Administration (NASA). The satellite dish was created to receive signals from satellites in space. It seems that there has been an error in the communication. By 1963, demand created by the Apollo program had driven the price down to about $25. In the realm of space exploration, the Apollo missions to the Moon generated predictions that also failed to come to pass: permanent outposts on the Moon, tourist hotels in Earth orbit, manned missions to Mars. It took 5,600 NOR gates to build the computer NASA would eventually send to the Moon. By its nature, a digital computer is a general-purpose device. NASA's earliest objective was to launch a manned vehicle into Earth's orbit as soon as possible. The Soviet Union faction was led by rocket engineer and spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev, he was released from the gulag just for a single reason - to help the Soviets defeat the USA in Arms and Space race. One was the (Defense) Advanced Research Projects Agency, or ARPA, more recently known as DARPA. ARPAs mission was plain: support long-term research that will make it unlikely that the US would ever again to be caught off guard as it was when the Sputniks were lau ched. farthest reaches of the universe. . Combined with others they formed a central processing unit (CPU). The NASA tests were successful, but American aircraft companies were slow to adopt the new technology. It took a long period of development, however, before the silicon transistor became reliable enough to allow computers to become small, rugged, and less power consuming. In 1959 two engineers, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Instruments, went a step further and developed circuits that placed several transistors and other components on a single chip of material (at first germanium, later silicon). The fifth computer is there in case of a software errorit is programmed by a different group of people, so there is little chance of all five computers having a common bug in their software (Tomayko 1987, 85133). Today, most space operations, from the piloted Shuttle and Space Station, to commercial communications satellites, to unmanned military and scientific spacecraft, require more ground-control facilities than commercial or military aviation. But her . Although properly heralded as a revolution, the change was slow to happen, with digital controls first appearing only in the mid-1960s with systems like the Gemini onboard computer. Between the mid-1950s to 1975, the United States and the Soviet Union strived to outdo each other in rocket technology and space exploration. This infographic presents a timeline of space-related achievements by the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. between 1957 and 1969. In the fifty years since their founding, one can list a remarkable number of achievements by each, but chief among those achievements are two. While impossible to know the future in space endeavors, we can thank the space race for positively impacting current and future technologies. Imperfections in the tape could create flipped bits and therefore bad instructions in the transferred program. When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. Transistorized computers began to appear in missile-guidance systems around 1960. It could handle ascent, orbital flight, rendezvous and reentry and had a keyboard and display unit. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1998. The whole thing consumed 2.5 amps, and ran at 1MHz. Careers, 3033 Wilson Blvd Note also that this form of guidance is also required for nearly the whole trajectory of an air-breathing guided missile, which is powered through most of its flight. In fact, one in every three cell phone cameras on the planet uses technology that was invented for NASA spacecraft. Their resolve and bravery gave us a wonderful moment on July 20, 2019. The Cold War was a major world event that took place from approximately 1945 until 1990. It is a shock to many today that much of the calculations in the early days of space travel were done with a pencil and a slide rule. Mankind broke the bonds that held us on this world and set foot on another world. It has since become a standard throughout the aerospace industry. Beginning in 1935, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), a precursor of NASA, hired hundreds of women as computers. If current trends continue, computers will contain the equivalent number of circuits as there are neurons in the human brain by about the year 2030. Having more and more circuits may not be enough to cross the threshold from intelligence, however defined, to consciousness. In this area it is best to leave such speculation to the science fiction writers. An aircraft or guided missile must operate its engines constantly, to work against atmospheric drag, while the forward motion of the wings through the air generates lift to counter the force of gravity. The process of orienting a spacecraft along its x, y, and z axes in space we will call the control function. While scientists on both sides worked like crazy, their competing governments spat at each other like two swollen-headed macho men trying to . The Cold War was a war between the United State and the Soviet . It was no coincidence that NASA choose as the manager of this program none other than Neil Armstrong, the first person to walk on the Moon in 1969, and thus one of the first whose life depended intimately on the correct operation of a digital computer (Tomayko 2000). In those days it was acceptable to have an error every 100,000 bits but NASA demanded those specifications be an error every 1,000,000 bits. Vacuum tubes, though fast acting, remained inherently fragile and unreliable, and were only used in a few instances. The Gemini computer and the Moon landings Audio player loading Getting into space requires more than just rockets. Both were identical in hardware, but had different software weaved into their memories. The invention of the electronic digital computer, which occurred in several places between about 1940 and 1950, was often connected to the solution of problems in the sciences of astronomy and aerodynamics, or in support of the technologies of aircraft design and production, air traffic control, anti-aircraft weapons, and later guided missile development. New York: Viking, 1999. For aerospace, the computers potential to become a universal machine as implied by Turings thesis was thwarted by the hard reality of the need to adapt to the rigors of air and space flight. America had a new set of heroes -- the Mercury 7 astronauts. Space computers can autonomously launch, control, and land spacecraft. The Mercury Program took the first American into orbit in 1962 when John Glenn orbited the Earth months after Yuri Gagarin did. MIT had previously designed the guidance system for the Polaris Missiles so they were one of the few companies with the necessary experience. At first the number of circuits on a chip was small, about five or six. As we get set for the anniversary of the Apollo 8 spaceflight, we examine one of the essential components that took the United States to the Moon and back. Other applications of joysticks now include steering boats, airplanes, and even controlling robots. The Internets ability to link disparate computer systems by a set of common protocols likewise sets it apart from aerospace networks, which often are unable to communicate with one another. Likewise the Space Shuttle, intended to provide routine access to space, was designed differently. At that point, its rocket engines are shut off. IBM was up to the challenge and devised a machine that understood only 16 different instructions but could execute 7,000 instructions per second. Nerds: A Brief History of the Internet. Fast and just accurate enough, a lot of early aerospace technology was built with these. The forgotten heroes were the people who designed these computers, which could get a ship with three men to the Moon with no more processing power than a modern day calculator. The "handshake in space" represented the improving relationship between the Soviets and the U.S. Eberhart, the author of this article, had his article published in 1965, right in the middle of the space race. Five Technologies We Gained From The Space Race, Click here to discover K2s Emerging Technologies for Accountants, Including Blockchain and Cryptocurrency. The Soviet Unions successful launch of two Sputnik satellites in the fall of 1957 came as a shock to many Americans. With both lives and huge amounts of money on the line, NASA has had to. Of those extensions, one was especially important for rocket guidance and came from the German V-2 program: the design of a pendulous gyro to measure the time integral of acceleration, which (by Newtons calculus) indicates the crafts velocity (MacKenzie 2000). Again in contrast to ships at sea or aircraft on long-distance missions, a spacecraft may fire its onboard rockets only occasionally, not continuously (ion and electric propulsion systems are an exception to this rule). This type of redundancy has become the norm in aircraft design. The formation of NASA was the first concrete step of a national commitment to winning the Space Race. He is considered to be the father of practical astronautics. The best and the brightest of the United States and the Soviet Union competed to see who could control space and it could not have been done without the help of computers. The Shuttle has fivethe failure of one Shuttle computer would allow the mission to continue. The space race of the 1950s and 1960s was one of the most pivotal events in the history of our planet. Open Document. The next prize in the race was to put a man on the Moon with the Gemini Program. Sergei Korolyov - Horyzonty Techniki 11/1966 By nn (Horyzonty Techniki . And NASA, responding to a challenge by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, successfully landed a dozen astronauts on the Moon and retuned them safely to Earth between 1969 and 1972. In the dozen years between the invention of the transistor and the silicon chip, the US Air Force mounted a campaign to improve the reliability of electronic circuits in general. Early ICs were much more expensive than circuits made from individual transistors, with the first chips costing about $1000 each in 1960. The system was programmed using assembly code and the software was preloaded months in advance for early Apollo missions and could not be corrected in-flights if an error occurred. Sometimes it takes up to several decades. ESA uses a lot of SPARC32 chips, in the form of the (GPL'd) LEON, which was designed to be able to be created in rad-hardened versions by anyone, cheaply. This combination of aft-placement of aerodynamic control surfaces, plus a self-correcting system based on gyroscopes, was carried over into rocket research and development. Keeping It Safe Technology from the space race has also been applied to directly improve public safety and reduce the risk of accident and injury. one in which the combatants were not soldiers but engineers. Let the students know that the Space Race impacted many aspects of the American culture, including literature. That doubling rate has remained in force ever since. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II.The technological advantage demonstrated by spaceflight achievement was seen as necessary for national security, and . With all the headlines surrounding the 50th anniversary of man on the moon, Ive been intrigued by some of the technologies that were associated with the Space Race and how they permeate our culture today. As mentioned above, the number of spinoff technologies from the Space Race that found commercial success exceeds 2,000. The title suggested that the Internet was a creation of nerds: mostly young men, few of them over thirty years old, whose obsessive tinkering with computers led to this world-changing social phenomenon. On October 4, 1957, the U.S.S.R. launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. Originally, these devices were used to detect toxic fumes and smoke on the Skylab as early as 1973. Now they are used in building everywhere to protect us in our homes and offices. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000. Artificial Intelligence remains an elusive goal. One intriguing way out of this dilemma is suggested by Moores Law. Air Force funding supported an effort at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) that led to the control of machine tools by a sequence of digital computer controls, coded as holes punched into a strip of plastic tape. Devices were assembled in clean rooms (invented at a US weapons laboratory in New Mexico): more sterile than the finest hospital operating room. 5 Pages. Thus the Internet, which adds new connections every day, increases in value much faster than the cost of making each of those new connections. Errors while loading the finished program from magnetic tape into the computer's 4kB of non-volatile core memory were an ever-present danger. NASA is expected to report whether SpaceX, Dynetics, or Blue Origin have successfully moved forward with respective human landing systems. Many spacecraft adopt it, too, but in more nuanced ways, especially if the craft is not carrying a human crew. In April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to enter Earth's orbit, in a single-pilot spacecraft called Vostok I. These actions can be done automatically, by crew members onboard, or from mission control stations on the ground. This is the argument made by inventor Ray Kurzweil, who believes such a transfer of consciousness is inevitable (Kurzweil 1999). The Space Race. Spacecraft and spacecraft design have in many ways been profoundly influenced by computers, as have celestial mechanics, mission control procedures, and data processing methods. Did Nasa Create Computers? Many viewers apparently agreed, regardless of whatever counter arguments NASA or other space enthusiasts raised against it. The pressure placed on innovation during the space race has had far reaching impacts for new creations and developments in innovations. The Wright brothers patent for their 1903 airplane was for a method of control, not lift, structure, or propulsion. Lally wanted to design small, lightweight image sensors able to resist the harsh conditions in space. The Gemini rocket's control system was to be used as a test-bed for the Moon landings, so it had to do more than merely crunch numbers: it had to be error-proof, efficient and, above all else, small. On July 16, 1969 . Among the responses to Sputnik was the founding of agencies, one an arm of the US Defense Department, the other a civilian agency. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999. Both were in 1958 (Norberg and ONeil 1996). The Space Race greatly affected the the Cold War. The invention of the silicon chip, combined with the Air Forces High-Reliability initiatives, went a long way in making computers reliable for aerospace use, but reliability was still an issue. Although the details of these systems are classified, we can say that many US military systems tend to be controlled from ground facilities located near Colorado Springs, Colorado; human spaceflight from Houston, Texas; and commercial systems from various other places in the country. Commercial jetliners fly at about the same speed, and about the same altitude, as the first commercial jets that were introduced into service in the 1950s. These networks were significant but were not the technical antecedents of the Internet. Soon after World War II ended, a new conflict was beginning. Each chip contained a circuit called a NOR gate, which produces an output only when none of its inputs receive a signal. NASA turned to MIT to design the guidance computer that would take the Apollo astronauts to the Moon. Launch vehicles had to be strong enough to hold the fuel and oxygen, as well as support the structure of the upper stages, while enduring the vibration and stress of launch, and they had to be light-weight. We compiled 30 common items that were invented for use in the race for space. We can only imagine for now what the next space race will produce. the Soviet Union. Project Mercurys initial designs were modified, first under pressure from the astronauts, and later more so after the initial flights showed that it was foolish to have the astronaut play only a passive role. An exact angle had to be achieved in order to enter the Moons atmosphere as well as the Earths. Once that first-order stability is achieved, the vehicles guidance system may direct the thrust to deviate from that alignmentat first slightly, then more and more as it gains velocity. Digital technology has completely taken over not only rocketry and space vehicles but also all new guided missiles, as well as commercial and military aircraft. The computer had to take into account the curvature of the orbit and the fuel consumption of the rockets to maximize the finite amount of fuel on board. The Civil Rights Act had just passed and the slide rule was giving way to computers when Frances "Poppy" Northcutt arrived at NASA's Houston campus in 1965, eager to join the space race. New York, Kranz, Gene. Once the rocket motors have shut down, it is free to orient itself in any direction and will fly the same no matter how it is pointed. Why? One of the ironies of history is that advances in space exploration have had an effect on aircraft design as well. Further, with the Cold War raging and the associated threat of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles, a system was necessary to guide this advanced weaponry in case it was used. Clearly, developing a rocket that could carry man to the moon and back necessitated developing some extraordinary technologies. Known as the Cold War, this battle pitted the world's two great powers of . Segaller, Stephen. One of the human computers' main tasks was computing the planned trajectories, or paths, for a spacecraft based on the vehicle weight, lift capacity of the rocket, and the orbital dynamics of the planets. It was christened Moores Law, by Gordon Moore, a colleague of Robert Noyces at Fairchild, who was responsible for laying much of the material foundation for the chips advances (Moore 1965). Tommy is one of the shareholders in K2 Enterprises (www.k2e.com), affiliating with the Firm in 2003 and joining as a shareholder in 2007. Space exploration has no corresponding law, although if deep space probes discover evidence of life on other planets, that equation will be rewritten. The limitations of the human body will remain as a drag on progress in the human exploration of deep space. Shots of Mission Control replete with their computers and monitors were standard on every newscast around the globe. The body of the program elaborated further on this theme. The decade of the 1950s saw a steady increase in the power and memory capacity of mainframe computers, coupled with a development of general purpose software such as the programming language FORTRAN, and special-purpose software that was used for computer-aided design/computer-assisted manufacturing (CAD/CAM), stress analysis, or fluid dynamics. Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight. The show went a step further: it argued that the Moon landings were a one-time stunt, with little or no long-term impact on society, while the Internet was a world-changing technology that did, and continues, to affect the lives or ordinary people around the world. It was published in the Observer, 6 January 2019, under the headline 'Power politics always drives space conquest. Overview. This form of radio or beam-riding guidance has fallen from favor. . 2022 K2 Enterprises. An innovative think tank, Aii explores the intersection of economics, law, and public policy in the areas of climate, damage prevention, energy, infrastructure, innovation, technology, and transportation. In the US, the non-profit Public Broadcasting Service produced a multi-part television program to document the meteoric rise of this phenomenon. The electronic industry of the 1950s based its economic models on a consumer market, where low manufacturing costs, not high quality, were the way to achieve profits. Controlling a rockets thrust in this, the powered phase of a mission, we call guidance, although the aerospace community does not always agree on the definition of this term. Failure is not an Option. Beyond the Limits: Flight Enters the Computer Age. That hand-held calculator had more computing power than the onboard Apollo Guidance Computer, designed a decade earlier when the chip was new. The movie stars Taraji P. Henson, Janelle Mone, and Octavia Spencer as the main trifecta. If one assumes an equivalence, then one could envision transferring the nature of human consciousness to a computer, which could then explore the cosmos unconstrained by a human body that currently is required to support it. Gary Stevens February 6, 2017. NASA, the premiere space research agency, was also built in 1958 during the Space Race to counter the early success in USSR in outer space. Getting to the moon takes more than pointing a rocket towards the white thing in the sky you need to know exactly where it's going to be in three days' time. The Space Race, roughly 1957 to 1977, was one of the great dramas of the 20th century. The notion of digital photography was conceptualized by engineer Eugene Lally at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the peak of the space race. The heroism, the sacrifices, and the commitment to the project all contributed to the success of the program. The spectacular advances in robotic deep-space missions, and other accomplishments mentioned above, are largely a result of the effect of Moores Law on spacecraft designespecially spacecraft that do not carry humans (who, for better or worse, have the same physical dimensions and need for food, water, and oxygen today as we had in 1959, when the silicon chip was invented). One may feel disappointed that the human exploration of space seems to be so constrained, but it is hard to maintain that feeling in the face of all the other exciting developments in aerospace that are happening all around that fact. The space race was part of the Cold War (1947-89). A solid-state analog device that required no batteries. After 1945, the US aerospace community had the further attribute of commanding large sums of money from the military arm of its government, as the US waged a Cold War with the Soviet Union. K2's goal is to produce and deliver the highest quality technology seminars and conferences available to business professionals. To help reduce power consumption a standby mode was programmed to use between 5 and 10 watts. Ground-based computers are getting better, too. The V-2, for example, used a pendulous gyro to compute the integral of acceleration, thus giving the velocity; at a certain velocity the motor was shut off to hit a predetermined target. Yes, there were big, honkin' contraptions that filled rooms and were full of vacuum tubes, but this is how a lot of the computation was done. The computer was at the side of these modern . All may be legitimately called descendants of Project Whirlwind. If not, either the main engines or other auxiliary engines are used to change the crafts trajectory. SAGE was designed to look for enemy aircraft. One of the human computers' main tasks was computing the planned trajectories, or paths, for a spacecraft based on the vehicle weight, lift capacity of the rocket, and the orbital dynamics of the planets. The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is a digital computer produced for the Apollo program that was installed on board each Apollo command module (CM) and Apollo Lunar Module (LM).Apollo Guidance Computer. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1987. , Computers Take Flight: A History of NASAs Pioneering Digital Fly-By-Wire Project. The Pleiades Supercomputer is in charge of simulating how humans would be thrown into space by a massive rock. 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